مدونة صيدلاوى

Tell Children the Truth About Drinking After years of debate, the U.S. government has finally decided that alcohol can be beneficial. Federal dietary recommendations, revised every five years, now indicate that moderate drinking lowers the risk of heart disease. The dietary guidelines note that such "beverages have been used to enhance the  enjoyment of meals throughout human history. There is both old and new information in this statement. We all know that many Americans drink only occasionally or lightly at meals and social occasions. They know when to quit, don't misbehave when they drink and enjoy the taste and sensations of alcohol without going overboard. Most of us are also aware that people in different cultures handle alcohol differently.  In Mediterranean societies -- Italy, Spain, Portugal -- alcohol is consumed in the form of wine, usually at meals, by family members of all ages. Even small children are served wine on special occasion& Many Euro...

The first thing you should understand about the word "narcotic" is that it is used incorrectly more than it is used correctly. One good, quick way to tell whether someone actually knows anything about this subject is to listen to their use of this word. If they tell you that marijuana, cocaine, and meth are "narcotics" then count them among the vast legions of totally clueless people on this subject. The word "narcotic" comes from the Greek word "narkos", meaning sleep. Therefore, "narcotics" are drugs that induce sleep. Specifically, that means the opiates such as heroin, morphine and related drugs. This is the correct meaning, so you should accept no other. Cocaine and meth are not "narcotics". They are "stimulants", the exact opposite of a "narcotic". They cause people to be more awake and more active, not sleepy. Calling them :"narcotics" makes as much sense as calling coffee a "narcotic...

Thirty Years Ago Doctors, pharmacists, and researchers knew that some medicines caused serious side effects or reacted dangerously with other drugs. But there were few tests to predict these problems before drugs went into clinical studies or were used by many people. Most studies on drug-metabolizing enzymes were done in rats or mice, so scientists didn’t know much about these enzymes in humans. To infer if a drug candidate would be toxic to humans, scientists evaluated whether the molecule caused organ damage in animals. Drug makers lacked the ability to customize the packaging and delivery of a drug to ensure that it would be well absorbed and available to the body. Today As recently as 10 to 15 years ago, up to 40 percent of drugs failed to work properly because they were poorly absorbed, were destroyed by the body, failed to get to the right place, or were excreted from the body too quickly. Today, fewer than 10 percent of medicines fail for these reasons. In part, that’s because ...

Caffeine is naturally found in certain leaves, seeds, and fruits of over 60 plants worldwide. The most common sources in our diet are coffee, tea leaves, cocoa beans, cola, and energy drinks. Caffeine can also be produced synthetically and added to food, beverages, supplements, and medications. Product labels are required to list caffeine in the ingredients but are not required to list the actual amounts of the substance. A low to moderate intake is 130 to 300 mg of caffeine per day, while heavy caffeine consumption corresponds to more than 6,000 mg/day. It is estimated that the average daily caffeine consumption among Americans is about 280 mg/day, while 20% to 30% consume more than 600 mg daily. The caffeine content in some common sources of caffeine are listed below: Sources of Caffeine Caffeine Content Coffee Plain, brewed 8 oz 135 mg Instant 8 oz 95 mg Espresso 1 oz 30-50 mg Plain, decaffeinated 8 oz 5 mg Tea Green tea 8 oz 25-40 mg Black tea 8 oz 40-70 mg Soft Drinks Coca-Cola C...

Caffeine is naturally found in certain leaves, seeds, and fruits of over 60 plants worldwide. The most common sources in our diet are coffee, tea leaves, cocoa beans, cola, and energy drinks. Caffeine can also be produced synthetically and added to food, beverages, supplements, and medications. Product labels are required to list caffeine in the ingredients but are not required to list the actual amounts of the substance. A low to moderate intake is 130 to 300 mg of caffeine per day, while heavy caffeine consumption corresponds to more than 6,000 mg/day. It is estimated that the average daily caffeine consumption among Americans is about 280 mg/day, while 20% to 30% consume more than 600 mg daily. The caffeine content in some common sources of caffeine are listed below: Sources of Caffeine Caffeine Content Coffee Plain, brewed 8 oz 135 mg Instant 8 oz 95 mg Espresso 1 oz 30-50 mg Plain, decaffeinated 8 oz 5 mg Tea Green tea 8 oz 25-40 mg Black tea 8 oz 40-70 mg Soft Drinks Coca-Cola C...

There are few people who are not aware of the stimulating effect that caffeine provides. We have a choice and choose caffeinated beverages for a reason. Caffeine is considered the most commonly used psychoactive drug in the world. Approximately 80% of the world's population consumes it on a daily basis, and continuous research is being done on its health benefits and consequences. Caffeine is the common name for 1,3,7-trimethylxanthine. When purified, caffeine produces an intensely bitter white powder that provides a distinctive taste in soft drinks. The word "caffeine" came from the German word kaffee and the French word café, each meaning coffee. After ingesting caffeine, it is completely absorbed within 30 to 45 minutes, and its effects substantially diminish within about three hours. It is eventually excreted so there is no accumulation in the body. Caffeine has been shown to affect mood, stamina, the cerebral vascular system, and gastric and colonic activity. But caf...

There are few people who are not aware of the stimulating effect that caffeine provides. We have a choice and choose caffeinated beverages for a reason. Caffeine is considered the most commonly used psychoactive drug in the world. Approximately 80% of the world's population consumes it on a daily basis, and continuous research is being done on its health benefits and consequences. Caffeine is the common name for 1,3,7-trimethylxanthine. When purified, caffeine produces an intensely bitter white powder that provides a distinctive taste in soft drinks. The word "caffeine" came from the German word kaffee and the French word café, each meaning coffee. After ingesting caffeine, it is completely absorbed within 30 to 45 minutes, and its effects substantially diminish within about three hours. It is eventually excreted so there is no accumulation in the body. Caffeine has been shown to affect mood, stamina, the cerebral vascular system, and gastric and colonic activity. But caf...

In December 2008, the ‘Executive Programme Committee’ for Harm Reduction 2009: IHRA’s 20th International Conference met to review the 900 abstracts that had been submitted from all over the world, and to create the conference programme. The result is another high quality, comprehensive programme which covers a range of different harm reduction interventions and approaches – for all psychoactive drugs, including alcohol.Whereas the previous IHRA conference (Harm Reduction 2008 in Barcelona) featured the ‘4th International Conference on Alcohol and Harm Reduction’ as a side-event on the opening day, the conference organisers were keen to increase the alcohol focus in the main programme for 2009. We received over 60 abstracts this year relating to alcohol harm reduction and, as such, have been able to include a number of sessions on this important issue. The programme highlights (subject to confirmation) include: Plenary Session presentations from the UN Special Rapporteurs on the Right t...

In December 2008, the ‘Executive Programme Committee’ for Harm Reduction 2009: IHRA’s 20th International Conference met to review the 900 abstracts that had been submitted from all over the world, and to create the conference programme. The result is another high quality, comprehensive programme which covers a range of different harm reduction interventions and approaches – for all psychoactive drugs, including alcohol.Whereas the previous IHRA conference (Harm Reduction 2008 in Barcelona) featured the ‘4th International Conference on Alcohol and Harm Reduction’ as a side-event on the opening day, the conference organisers were keen to increase the alcohol focus in the main programme for 2009. We received over 60 abstracts this year relating to alcohol harm reduction and, as such, have been able to include a number of sessions on this important issue. The programme highlights (subject to confirmation) include: Plenary Session presentations from the UN Special Rapporteurs on the Right t...

The term harm reduction refers to policies, programmes and projects which aim to reduce the health, social and economic harms associated with the use of psychoactive substances. It is an evidence-based and cost-effective approach – bringing benefits to the individual, community and society.Harm reduction is a targeted approach that focuses on specific harms. It requires that politicians, policymakers, communities, researchers and frontline workers ask two questions: What specifically are the harms associated with different psychoactive drugs? What can be done to reduce the risk of those harms occurring? For example: People who inject drugs are vulnerable to contracting blood borne infections such as HIV and hepatitis B and C. Providing sterile needles and syringes helps reduce the risk of infections. People dependent on illicit opiate drugs (such as heroin) are at particular risks from impure drugs, overdose, and having to engage in acquisitive crime in order to purchase their dru...

The term harm reduction refers to policies, programmes and projects which aim to reduce the health, social and economic harms associated with the use of psychoactive substances. It is an evidence-based and cost-effective approach – bringing benefits to the individual, community and society.Harm reduction is a targeted approach that focuses on specific harms. It requires that politicians, policymakers, communities, researchers and frontline workers ask two questions: What specifically are the harms associated with different psychoactive drugs? What can be done to reduce the risk of those harms occurring? For example: People who inject drugs are vulnerable to contracting blood borne infections such as HIV and hepatitis B and C. Providing sterile needles and syringes helps reduce the risk of infections. People dependent on illicit opiate drugs (such as heroin) are at particular risks from impure drugs, overdose, and having to engage in acquisitive crime in order to purchase their dru...

A philosophy of harm reduction promotes information and resources for injecting drug users. General guidelines on safer injecting various substances intravenously are typically based on the following steps. The preparation area for drug preparation should be cleaned with warm soapy water to minimize the risk of bacterial infection. [ 1 ] The equipment required involves new syringes and needles, swabs , sterile water, filter, tourniquet and a clean spoon or stericup. In order to minimise the chance for bacteria and viruses to enter the bloodstream, people are advised to soap their hands with warm water. However, as people do not always have access to hot water and soap when they are injecting, the philosophy of harm reduction seeks to find the most realistic option that people can take. Alcohol swabs are commonly distributed with injecting equipment, and while they are less effective than hand washing, their use is more effective than nothing. The sharing any of injecting equipment, ...

A philosophy of harm reduction promotes information and resources for injecting drug users. General guidelines on safer injecting various substances intravenously are typically based on the following steps. The preparation area for drug preparation should be cleaned with warm soapy water to minimize the risk of bacterial infection. [ 1 ] The equipment required involves new syringes and needles, swabs , sterile water, filter, tourniquet and a clean spoon or stericup. In order to minimise the chance for bacteria and viruses to enter the bloodstream, people are advised to soap their hands with warm water. However, as people do not always have access to hot water and soap when they are injecting, the philosophy of harm reduction seeks to find the most realistic option that people can take. Alcohol swabs are commonly distributed with injecting equipment, and while they are less effective than hand washing, their use is more effective than nothing. The sharing any of injecting equipment, ...

Harm reduction is an approach to public health intended to be a progressive alternative to an approach requiring complete abstinence from drug use. While it does not condone the taking of illicit drugs, it does seek to reduce the harms arising from their use, both for the person taking illicit drugs and the wider community. A prominent method for addressing the issue of disease transmission among intravenous drug users are safe needle exchange programs, in which facilities are available to exchange used injection equipment for safe sterile equipment, often without a prescription or fee. The idea is to reduce the practice of sharing used needles thereby hopefully reducing the risk of HIV infections.

Harm reduction is an approach to public health intended to be a progressive alternative to an approach requiring complete abstinence from drug use. While it does not condone the taking of illicit drugs, it does seek to reduce the harms arising from their use, both for the person taking illicit drugs and the wider community. A prominent method for addressing the issue of disease transmission among intravenous drug users are safe needle exchange programs, in which facilities are available to exchange used injection equipment for safe sterile equipment, often without a prescription or fee. The idea is to reduce the practice of sharing used needles thereby hopefully reducing the risk of HIV infections.

njection of recreational drugs is a method of introducing the drug into the body with a hollow needle and a syringe which is pierced through the skin into the body (usually intravenous , but also intramuscular or subcutaneous ). Although there are various methods of taking drugs, injection is favoured by some users as the full effects of the drug are experienced very quickly, typically in five to ten seconds. It also bypasses first-pass metabolism in the liver, resulting in a higher bioavailability for many drugs than oral ingestion would (so users get a stronger effect from the same amount of the drug). This shorter, more intense high can lead to a dependency, both physical and psychological, developing more quickly than with other methods of taking drugs. While a wide variety of drugs are injected, among the most popular in many countries are morphine, heroin, cocaine, amphetamine and methamphetamine. Prescription drugs, including tablets, capsules, or even liquids or suppositor...

njection of recreational drugs is a method of introducing the drug into the body with a hollow needle and a syringe which is pierced through the skin into the body (usually intravenous , but also intramuscular or subcutaneous ). Although there are various methods of taking drugs, injection is favoured by some users as the full effects of the drug are experienced very quickly, typically in five to ten seconds. It also bypasses first-pass metabolism in the liver, resulting in a higher bioavailability for many drugs than oral ingestion would (so users get a stronger effect from the same amount of the drug). This shorter, more intense high can lead to a dependency, both physical and psychological, developing more quickly than with other methods of taking drugs. While a wide variety of drugs are injected, among the most popular in many countries are morphine, heroin, cocaine, amphetamine and methamphetamine. Prescription drugs, including tablets, capsules, or even liquids or suppositor...

The basic mechanisms by which different substances activate the reward system are as described above, but vary slightly among drug classes. [ 13 ] . Depressants Depressants such as alcohol, barbiturates, and benzodiazepines work by increasing the affinity of the GABA receptor for its ligand; GABA. Narcotics such as morphine and methadone, work by mimicking endorphins—chemicals produced naturally by the body which have effects similar to dopamine—or by disabling the neurons that normally inhibit the release of dopamine in the reward system. These substances (sometimes called "downers") typically facilitate relaxation and pain-relief. Stimulants Stimulants such as amphetamines, nicotine, and cocaine, increase dopamine signaling in the reward system either by directly stimulating its release, or by blocking its absorption (see "reuptake"). These substances (sometimes called "uppers") typically cause heightened alertness and energy. They cause a pleasa...

The basic mechanisms by which different substances activate the reward system are as described above, but vary slightly among drug classes. [ 13 ] . Depressants Depressants such as alcohol, barbiturates, and benzodiazepines work by increasing the affinity of the GABA receptor for its ligand; GABA. Narcotics such as morphine and methadone, work by mimicking endorphins—chemicals produced naturally by the body which have effects similar to dopamine—or by disabling the neurons that normally inhibit the release of dopamine in the reward system. These substances (sometimes called "downers") typically facilitate relaxation and pain-relief. Stimulants Stimulants such as amphetamines, nicotine, and cocaine, increase dopamine signaling in the reward system either by directly stimulating its release, or by blocking its absorption (see "reuptake"). These substances (sometimes called "uppers") typically cause heightened alertness and energy. They cause a pleasa...

Depending on the jurisdiction, addictive drugs may be legal only as part of a government sponsored study, illegal to use for any purpose, illegal to sell, or even illegal to merely possess. Most countries have legislation which brings various drugs and drug-like substances under the control of licensing systems. Typically this legislation covers any or all of the opiates, amphetamines, cannabinoids, cocaine, barbiturates, hallucinogenics and a variety of more modern synthetic drugs. Unlicensed production, supply or possession is a criminal offence. Usually, however, drug classification under such legislation is not related simply to addictiveness. The substances covered often have very different addictive properties. Some are highly prone to cause physical dependency, whilst others rarely cause any form of compulsive need whatsoever. Also, under legislation specifically about drugs, alcohol is not usually included. Although the legislation may be justifiable on moral or public healt...

Depending on the jurisdiction, addictive drugs may be legal only as part of a government sponsored study, illegal to use for any purpose, illegal to sell, or even illegal to merely possess. Most countries have legislation which brings various drugs and drug-like substances under the control of licensing systems. Typically this legislation covers any or all of the opiates, amphetamines, cannabinoids, cocaine, barbiturates, hallucinogenics and a variety of more modern synthetic drugs. Unlicensed production, supply or possession is a criminal offence. Usually, however, drug classification under such legislation is not related simply to addictiveness. The substances covered often have very different addictive properties. Some are highly prone to cause physical dependency, whilst others rarely cause any form of compulsive need whatsoever. Also, under legislation specifically about drugs, alcohol is not usually included. Although the legislation may be justifiable on moral or public healt...

A medication or medicine is a drug taken to cure and/or ameliorate any symptoms of an illness or medical condition, or may be used as preventive medicine that has future benefits but does not treat any existing or pre-existing diseases or symptoms. Dispensing of medication is often regulated by governments into three categories — over-the-counter (OTC) medications, which are available in pharmacies and supermarkets without special restrictions, behind-the-counter (BTC), which are dispensed by a pharmacist without needing a doctor's prescription, and Prescription only medicines (POM), which must be prescribed by a licensed medical professional , usually a physician. [citation needed] In the UK, BTC medicines are called pharmacy medicines which can only be sold in registered pharmacies, by or under the supervision of a pharmacist, these medications are designated by the letter P on the label, [ 9 ] the precise distinction between OTC and prescription drugs depends on the legal ...

Drug addiction is a pathological condition. The disorder of addiction involves the progression of acute drug use to the development of drug-seeking behavior, the vulnerability to relapse, and the decreased, slowed ability to respond to naturally rewarding stimuli. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) has categorized three stages of addiction: preoccupation/anticipation, binge/intoxication, and withdrawal/negative affect. These stages are characterized, respectively, everywhere by constant cravings and preoccupation with obtaining the substance; using more of the substance than necessary to experience the intoxicating effects; and experiencing tolerance, withdrawal symptoms, and decreased motivation for normal life activities. [ 2 ] By the American Society of Addiction Medicine definition, drug addiction differs from drug dependence and drug tolerance. [ 3 ] It is, both among scientists and other writers, quite usual to allow the concept...

Drug addiction is a pathological condition. The disorder of addiction involves the progression of acute drug use to the development of drug-seeking behavior, the vulnerability to relapse, and the decreased, slowed ability to respond to naturally rewarding stimuli. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) has categorized three stages of addiction: preoccupation/anticipation, binge/intoxication, and withdrawal/negative affect. These stages are characterized, respectively, everywhere by constant cravings and preoccupation with obtaining the substance; using more of the substance than necessary to experience the intoxicating effects; and experiencing tolerance, withdrawal symptoms, and decreased motivation for normal life activities. [ 2 ] By the American Society of Addiction Medicine definition, drug addiction differs from drug dependence and drug tolerance. [ 3 ] It is, both among scientists and other writers, quite usual to allow the concept...

The French drug maker Sanofi-Aventis said it was buying the Brazilian pharmaceutical company Medley for 1.5 billion reais ($662 million). Medley is Brazil’s No. 1 maker of generic medicines with a portfolio of 127 products, from where it gets two-thirds of its sales. Sanofi-Aventis said it expected the market for non-patented drugs to grow by 20 percent a year. The deal should be completed before the end of June, Sanofi-Aventis said.

Many drug molecules are enzyme inhibitors, so their discovery and improvement is an active area of research in biochemistry and pharmacology . A medicinal enzyme inhibitor is often judged by its specificity (its lack of binding to other proteins) and its potency (its dissociation constant , which indicates the concentration needed to inhibit the enzyme). A high specificity and potency ensure that a drug will have few side effects and thus low toxicity . Enzyme inhibitors also occur naturally and are involved in the regulation of metabolism. For example, enzymes in a metabolic pathway can be inhibited by downstream products. This type of negative feedback slows flux through a pathway when the products begin to build up and is an important way to maintain homeostasis in a cell . Other cellular enzyme inhibitors are proteins that specifically bind to and inhibit an enzyme target. This can help control enzymes that may be damaging to a cell, such as proteases or nucleases ; a well...

Enzyme inhibitors are molecules that bind to enzymes and decrease their activity. Since blocking an enzyme's activity can kill a pathogen or correct a metabolic imbalance, many drugs are enzyme inhibitors. They are also used as herbicides and pesticides. Not all molecules that bind to enzymes are inhibitors; enzyme activators bind to enzymes and increase their enzymatic activity. The binding of an inhibitor can stop a substrate from entering the enzyme's active site and/or hinder the enzyme from catalysing its reaction. Inhibitor binding is either reversible or irreversible. Irreversible inhibitors usually react with the enzyme and change it chemically. These inhibitors modify key amino acid residues needed for enzymatic activity. In contrast, reversible inhibitors bind non-covalently and different types of inhibition are produced depending on whether these inhibitors bind the enzyme, the enzyme-substrate complex, or both

Receptors are like biological "light switches" which turn on and off when stimulated by a drug which binds to the receptor and activates it. For example, narcotic pain relievers like morphine bind to receptors in the brain that sense pain and decrease the intensity of that perception. Non-narcotic pain relievers like aspirin, Motrin (ibuprofen) or Tylenol (acetaminophen) bind to an enzyme located in cells outside of the brain close to where the pain is localized (e.g., hand, foot, low back, but not in the brain) and decrease the formation of biologically-active substances known as prostaglandins, which cause pain and inflammation. These "peripherally-acting" (act outside of the central nervous system (CNS)) analgesics may also decrease the sensitivity of the local pain nerves causing fewer pain impulses to be sensed and transmitted to the brain for appreciation. In some instances, a drug's site of action or "receptor" may actually be something which re...

Did you ever wonder how aspirin knows to go to your head when you have a headache and to your elbow when you have "Tennis Elbow"? Or how one or two small aspirins containing only 325-650 mg of active drug can relieve a headache or ease the inflammation of a strained muscle or tendon in a 195 lb. athlete? The answer to the first question is that drugs are distributed throughout the body by the blood and other fluids of distribution (see distribution below). Once they arrive at the proper site of action, they act by binding to receptors, usually located on the outer membrane of cells, or on enzymes located within the cell.

Did you ever wonder how aspirin knows to go to your head when you have a headache and to your elbow when you have "Tennis Elbow"? Or how one or two small aspirins containing only 325-650 mg of active drug can relieve a headache or ease the inflammation of a strained muscle or tendon in a 195 lb. athlete? The answer to the first question is that drugs are distributed throughout the body by the blood and other fluids of distribution (see distribution below). Once they arrive at the proper site of action, they act by binding to receptors, usually located on the outer membrane of cells, or on enzymes located within the cell.